Afghan–Sikh Wars

The Sikh Confederacy had effectively achieved independence from the Mughal Empire in 1716, and expanded at its expense in the following decades, despite the Chhota Ghallughara. The Afsharid Persian emperor Nader Shah's invasion of the Mughal Empire (1738–40) dealt a heavy blow to the Mughals, but after Nader Shah's death in 1747, the Durrani Empire (roughly covering modern Afghanistan and Pakistan) declared its independence from Persia. Four years later, this new Afghan state came into conflict with the Sikh alliance.

On 12 January 1748, Ahmad Shah Durrani invaded and occupied Lahore,[9] after the Mughal governor of Lahore, Shah Nawaz Khan, fled to Delhi.[10] Establishing a governor over Lahore, Ahmad marched his army east taking more territory,[9] but was defeated at the Battle of Manupur by Mughals in alliance with Sikhs[11] and fled back to Kandahar.[10] Sikh bands under Charat Singh, Jassa Singh Ahluwalia and Ala Singh continued to harass Durrani forces by depriving them of their booty as they retreated. Thus, the first invasion of Shah proved a failure but it gave an opportunity to the Sikhs to organize themselves into Dal Khalsa, an army of Sikh Confederacy, at Amritsar on March 1748.[12] The Sikhs retook Lahore only to lose it to the Afghans by 12 April 1752.[9]

The Sikhs would commence in guerilla warfare to try to kick the Afghans out of Punjab.[1] In November 1757, the Sikhs defeated the outnumbered Afghan army at Battle of Amritsar (also known as the Battle of Gohalwar), under the command of Timur Shah Durrani, son of Ahmad Shah Durrani.[9] Faced with the imminent fall of Lahore, the Durrani commander-in-chief Jahan Khan and Timur Shah hastily evacuated the city, but to ford the Chenab and Ravi rivers, most of the army’s baggage was abandoned and thousands drowned attempting to cross the river.[1] Those Afghans who were taken prisoners by the Sikhs, were put to work in cleaning the sacred tank in Amritsar which was previously desecrated by the Afghans.[1] The Sikhs ousted its Afghan faujdar (military officer) Sa‘adat Khan Afridi from Jalandhar early in 1758. Henceforth, in whichever direction an Afghan army was sent, it came back defeated. The Sikhs even attacked and captured Lahore and plundered its suburbs.[13] However, the Afghans returned in 1761, recapturing Lahore but this victory was short-lived. In May 1761, a Sikh army annihilated a force let by Ahmad Shah’s governor of the Chahar Mahal, and a relief party despatched from Kandahar was defeated and forced to surrender.[14] The Sikhs then took Lahore while its governor barricaded himself in the citadel.[14] In September 1761, the governor Ahmad Shah Durrani had appointed to the province of Lahore was defeated by the Sikhs near Gujranwala. The Sikhs threw out the other appointees of Ahmad Shah and brought the entire land from the Satluj to the Indus, under their control. Afghan faujdars were dislodged by the Sikhs from the Bist Jalandhar Doab, Sarhind, Rachna and the Chaj Doabs.[13] Ahmad Shah lost most of the Punjab to Sikhs.[14]

In October 1762, Ahmad Shah Durrani attacked Amritsar but was defeated by the Sikhs.[15] In November 1763, Sikh forces had forced Durrani armies to advance upon them, which led to the Battle of Sialkot, where the Afghans were defeated, and were forced to leave their Punjab campaign in the wake of this defeat.[16][17] Jahan Khan suffered a heavy defeat at Gujranwala and the Sikhs followed their victory by sacking Malerkotla and Morinda.[15] The Sikhs next defeated the commander of Rohtas Fortress, Sarbaland Khan Saddozai, imprisoned him but later released after he accepted Sikh suzeranity.[15] When Ahmad Shah heard of the disasters, he flew into paroxym of rage and wrote to Nasir Khan, beglar begi of Khalat, to join him in jihad (holy war) against the Sikhs, to destroy them and to enslave their women and children. However, in 1764 on Ahmad Shah’s return to Punjab, the jihad came to nothing. The advance guard was ambushed and routed by the Sikhs outside of Lahore.[15] When Ahmad Shah came to Punjab in 1765 his authority was confined to his camp; he was on the defensive and he returned to Kabul without fighting a single battle even though the Sikhs were hovering around his camp. Qazi Nur Muhammad, who had accompanied the Shah on this expedition, regretfully observed that the Sikhs had divided up the country from Sarhind to the Derajat among themselves and enjoyed it ‘without fear from anyone’.[13] The Sikhs formally declared their sovereignty by striking a coin at Lahore after its occupation by three of their leaders. This coin bore the inscription which Banda Bahadur had used on his seal fifty-five years earlier. 13 Sikh rule was re-established and it had come to stay.[13]

The Sikhs would also capture Multan in 1772.[18][19] The period after this would be known as the "Sikh Interlude Period", from 1772 to 1780.[20]

After the death of Ahmad Shah Durrani, the Sikhs capitalized on the weakened Durrani Empire and seized Multan.[21] Timur Shah, knowing this did not take action due to internal issues from dealing with Shah Wali Khan and Prince Humayun and further pressing domestic issues, and planned to strike at another opportune moment against the Sikhs.[22] When he left Kabul to his winter capital of Peshawar to reside in the Bala Hissar, Peshawar, he was given notice that 60,000 Sikhs had joined forces and marched across the Chenab River and Ravi River, who were moving on their way to occupy Dirah. In accordance to Sharia rule, and Durrani culture, Timur Shah sent an ambassador to the Sikhs, Sardar Hajji 'Ali Khan, giving them kind words and attempting to make peace.[22] The Sikhs however, had shown arrogance, believing in their numbers, they had Timur's envoy tied to a tree and used him as target practice.[22] They are also quoted to have said: "His Highness Timur Shah is trying to scare us but the fact of the matter is that he is afraid of us".[22] Those companions who had traveled with 'Ali Khan that managed to escape broke the news to Timur Shah.[22] Timur Shah, now angered had donned red clothing, as a sign of bloodlust and ordered the generals of the Durrani army to present themselves and their armies in battle gear, verifying them as prepared for a campaign.[22] The Shah chose 18,000 men consisting of Afghan, Mongol, and Qizilbash horsemen under the command of Zangi-Khan, and declared Jihad against the Sikhs.[23] Timur Shah would also counsel with his generals, to allow no abuse to disdain the rewards of Jihad.[23] Zangi Khan and Timur Shah marched beyond the Nilab river until the two armies had met, with Timur Shah and his army being around eight kuruhs from the Sikh armies.[23] The guards were spread point two kuruks apart to prevent travelers heading in the direction of the Sikhs, often detaining them as well.[23] Timur Shah waited until the final third of the night and rested his men, he then alligned for battle, posting Qizilbash and Mongols on his flanks, while Timur Shah was at the centre of the army with 5,000 Yusufzai cavalry. and the rest of the Durrani armies from Kandahar.[23] Timur Shah and his army advanced advanced in this position, and no later then sunrise were they around point 2 Kuruhs from the Sikh army.[23] Morning prayers were preformed and the Afghan armies attacked following this.[23] The Sikh armies, unaware of the approach of Timur Shah's army would scramble to fight, preparing for battle.[23] The Sikh armies were routed in this battle, and the Afghan armies had pursued them, harrasing them relentlessly that the death-toll was put at over 30,000.[24] The Sikh cavalrymen had escaped the battle initially, but most had died in the pursuing chase by the Afghans or drowned by accidently driving their horses into a nearby river.[24] From this, only 2,000 Sikh Cavalrymen had escaped.[24] A mere 4 days after the Shah's departure from Peshawar, he had returned with many celebrations put into place, Zangi-Khan was also given a robe of honor.[24] Timur Shah had also marched on Multan, sieging the city. The Sikhs, knowing they did not have the proper resources to resist the Afghan incursion, sued for peace. With the Sikhs giving the Shah's official the keys to the citadel, and were in return given security for their lives and possessions.[24] After consolidating Multan, Timur Shah gave the city over to Shuja Khan Sadozai, not to be confused with Shah Shuja Durrani[24] and had returned to Peshawar. Timur Shah later left Peshawar to return to Kabul, also holding celebration there of his victories.[24]

This phase ended with the death of Timur Shah on 20 May 1793, leading his successor, Zaman Shah Durrani to ascend to the Durrani throne.[25]

Zaman Shah Durrani ascended to the Durrani throne after his father, Timur Shah died on 20 May 1793. Zaman Shah lead multiple campaigns of Punjab against the Sikhs. His first campaign was on November 1796.[26]

Zaman Shah's campaign of Punjab in 1796 against the Sikhs, led to capture of Lahore on January 1797,[27] without any opposition as the Sikh chiefs retired to Amritsar to protect the holy city.[28] Zaman Shah progressed towards Amritsar on January 13, 1797 where he was defeated by the Sikhs, 10 kms away from the city.[29] As intelligence from Kabul had warned of a possible Persian invasion of main Afghanistan, Zaman Shah was forced to abandon his first Punjab campaign and return home to mobilize an army to combat this threat, headed by his own brother, Mahmud Shah Durrani. The Sikhs recaptured Lahore as he left.[27] After retreat, he left his deputy general, Ahmad Khan Shahanchi-bashi in charge, along with Afghan soldiers but he too was defeated and killed by the Sikhs.[30]

In 1813, after demanding the return of the fort at Attock, the Durrani prime minister Wazir Fateh Khan besieged Attock.[34] A Punjabi relief force arrived and for three months the two armies faced each other, neither side moving.[34] As the heat from summer started to affect the armies, Dewan Mokham Chand marched his army to block the Afghans from getting water from the river.[34] Without water the Afghan troops began to suffer dehydration, so they launched attack after attack towards the river, but were unable to break through.[34] Chand, realizing the Afghans were weakened, charged his cavalry at the Afghans who broke and ran, losing two thousand men.[34]

Accusing Ranjit Singh of treachery, Fateh Khan set off from Kashmir at the head of 15,000 cavalry[35] in April 1813 and invested Attock Fort.[36] At the same time Ranjit Singh rushed Dewan Mokham Chand and Karam Chand Chahal from Burhan with a force of cavalry, artillery, and a battalion of infantry to meet the Afghans.[37]

Dewan Mokham Chand Nayyar encamped 8 miles (13 km) from the Afghan camp,[38] unwilling to risk a decisive engagement, although both sides engaged in numerous skirmishes and took losses. On 12 July 1813, the Afghans' supplies were exhausted and Dewan Mokham Chand Nayyar marched 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) from Attock to Haidaru, on the banks of the Indus River, to offer battle. On 13 July 1813, Dewan Mokham Chand Nayyar split the cavalry into four divisions, giving command of one division to Hari Singh Nalwa and taking command of one division himself. The lone battalion of infantry formed an infantry square protecting the artillery, with Gouse Khan commanding the artillery.[37] The Afghans took up positions opposite the Sikhs, with a portion of their cavalry under the command of Dost Mohammad Khan.

Fateh Khan opened the battle by sending his Pathans on a cavalry charge which was repulsed by heavy fire from the Sikh artillery.[37] The Afghans rallied under Dost Mohammad Khan, who led the Ghazis on another cavalry charge which threw one wing of the Sikh army into disarray and captured some artillery.[36] When it appeared the Sikhs had lost the battle, Dewan Mokham Chand led a cavalry charge atop a war elephant that repulsed the Afghans "at all points",[38] and routed the remaining Afghan troops.[39] Fateh Khan, fearing his brother, Dost Mohammad Khan, had died, escaped to Kabul and the Sikhs captured the Afghan camp, including the lost artillery pieces.[40]

Two months after the victory at Attock, Ranjit Singh launched a campaign to take Kashmir from the Durrani Empire.[41] A late Autumn start postponed the campaign until the next spring.[41] By June, an army of 30,000 men under the command of Ram Dyal, grandson of Dewan Mokham Chand, marched toward Baramulla, with a pincer attack of 20,000 men led by Ranjit Singh marching to Poonch.[41]

Ranjit's force was delayed by torrential rains, while Ram Dyal's army took the fortress of Baramulla on 20 July 1814.[41] When Dyal's army reached Shupaiyan, the governor of Kashmir, Azim Khan blocked his advance.[42] Fighting a delaying action, Dyal waited on a reinforcement of 5,000 men from Ranjit.[43] These reinforcements were forced to a standstill by Afghan snipers.[43]

Ranjit Singh's force made little progress.[43] Faced with a scorched earth from the fleeing populace, food supplies became a major issue for his army, followed by a cholera outbreak.[43] Meanwhile, Ram Dyal, who was entrenched near Srinagar, received a proposal from Azim Khan for a negotiated peace and was able to extricate himself from a difficult situation.[43] Ranjit Singh's campaign ended in failure.[43]

Amritsar, Lahore, and other large cities across the Sikh Empire were illuminated for two months afterwards in rejoicing over the victory.[44] After his defeat at Attock, Fateh Khan fought off an attempt by Ali Shah, the ruler of Persia, and his son Ali Mirza to capture the Durrani province of Herat, which left their newly captured province of Kashmir open to attack.[45]

The Battle of Peshawar took place on 6 May 1834. The Sikhs took advantage of Dost Mohammad's precarious state and occupied Peshawar. Sultan Muhammad Khan was deposed and a Sikh governor, Hari Singh was installed.[50]

• Battles fought by Sikhs
• Pashtun tribes

• Chopra, Gulshan Lall (1928), The Panjab as a Sovereign State, Lahore: Uttar Chand Kapur and Sons
• Dupree, Louis (1980). Afghanistan. Princeton University Press.
• Glover, William J. (2008). Making Lahore Modern: Constructing and Imagining a Colonial City. University of Minnesota Press.
• Grewal, J.S. (1990). The Sikhs of the Punjab. Cambridge University Press. p. 91. ISBN 0-521-63764-3. Retrieved 15 April 2014.
• Griffin, Lepel Henry (1892). Ranjit Singh. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
• Jaques, Tony (2006). Dictionary of Battles and Sieges: A-E. Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-33537-2.
• Lansford, Tom (2017). Afghanistan at War: From the 18th-Century Durrani Dynasty to the 21st Century. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9781598847604.
• M'Gregor, William Lewis (1846). The history of the Sikhs; containing the lives of the Gooroos; the history of the independent Sirdars, or Missuls, and the life of the great founder of the Sikh monarchy, Maharajah Runjeet Singh. London: J. Madden.
• Mehta, Jaswant Lal (2005). Advanced Study in the History of Modern India 1707-1813. New Dawn Press, Inc.
• Prakash, Om (2002). Encyclopaedic History of Indian Freedom Movement. Anmol Publications. ISBN 978-81-261-0938-8.
• Singh, Khushwant (1999). A History of the Sikhs. 1, 1469–1839. Oxford University Press.
• Prinsep, Henry Thoby; Prinsep, James (1846), History of the Punjab: And of the Rise, Progress, and Present Condition of the Sect and Nation of the Sikhs (Volume II), Wm. H. Allen and Co., ISBN 978-1-142-34278-4