Chontal Maya

The Chontal Maya are a Maya people of the Mexican state of Tabasco. "Chontal", from the Nahuatl word for chontalli, which means "foreigner", has been applied to various ethnic groups in Mexico. The Chontal refer to themselves as the Yokot'anob or the Yokot'an, meaning "the speakers of Yoko ochoco", but writers about them refer to them as the Chontal of Centla, the Tabasco Chontal, or in Spanish, Chontales. They consider themselves the descendants of the Olmecs, and are not related to the Oaxacan Chontal.

For the historic Maya groups sometimes referred to as "Chontal", see Putún Maya. For the language, see Chontal Maya language.
Chontal
Total population
60,000
Regions with significant populations
Mexico (Tabasco)
Languages
Chontal Maya, Spanish
Religion
Catholicism, Maya religion
Related ethnic groups
Ch'ol, other Maya peoples

Location

The Yokot'an inhabit 21 towns in a large area known as "la Chontalpa" that extends across five municipalities of Tabasco: Centla (settlements of Álvaro Obregón (Santa Cruz), Arroyo Polo 2da. Sección, Benito Juárez, Benito Juárez Lechugal, Boca de Chilapa 1ra. Sección, Buena Vista, Cañaveral, Cañaveral Corcovado, Carlos A. Madrazo Becerra, Carlos Rovirosa 1ra. Sección, Carlos Rovirosa 2da. Sección (Barra de Pescador), Carlos Rovirosa 2da. Sección (La Costeñita), Coronel Gregorio Méndez Magaña, Cuauhtémoc, Chichicastle 1ra. Sección, Chichicastle 2da. Sección, Chicozapote 1ra. Sección, Chicozapote 2da. Sección, Chilapa 1ra. Sección Margen Derecha, Chilapa Margen Izquierda 1ra. Sección, El Bellote, El Carmen 1ra. Sección, El Carmen 2da. Sección, El Faisán, El Guajuco, El Guatope, El Limón, El Limón de Simón Sarlat, El Naranjal, El Palmar, El Porvenir, El Triunfo, Emiliano Zapata, Escoba (Chilapa Escoba), Felipe Carrillo Puerto (Centro), Francisco I. Madero, Francisco Villa, Francisco Villa Guano Solo, Frontera, Frontera (Fronterita), García, Gobernador Cruz, Ignacio Allende, Ignacio Zaragoza, Isla del Buey, Jalapita 1ra. Sección, José María Morelos (Tintalillo), José María Morelos y Pavón, Josefa Ortiz de Domínguez, Kilómetro Dieciocho, La Estrella, La Montaña, La Pimienta, La Sabana, La Suiza Uno (San Martín), La Unión, La Victoria, Las Palmas, Lázaro Cárdenas, Lázaro Cárdenas (El Guao), Leandro Rovirosa Wade 1ra. Sección, Leandro Rovirosa Wade 2da. Sección, Libertad de Allende, Licenciado Adolfo López Mateos, Los Ídolos, Los Pescadores, Miguel Hidalgo 1ra. Sección, Miguel Hidalgo 2da. Sección, Mixteca 1ra. Sección, Mixteca 2da. Sección, Niños Héroes, Nueva Esperanza de Quintín Arauz, Potrerillo, Potrerillo Sección Ignacio Allende, Quintín Arauz, Revolución, Ribera Alta 1ra. Sección, Ribera Alta 2da. Sección, Ribera Alta 2da. Sección (Salsipuedes), Ribera Alta 3ra. Sección, Ribera Alta de Cuauhtémoc, Ribera Alta Salsipuedes (Salsipuedes), San José de Simón Sarlat, San José del Carmen, San Juan, San Juanito Boca de Tres Brazos, San Miguel, San Nicolás, San Pedrito (Nueva Esperanza), San Román, Sección Ignacio Allende, Simón Sarlat, Tabasquillo 1ra. Sección, Tembladeras, Tres Brazos (Cocalito), Veintisiete de Febrero, and Vicente Guerrero), El Centro (settlements of Acachapan y Colmena 2da. Sección (El Maluco), Acachapan y Colmena 4ta. Sección, Acachapan y Colmena 5ta. Sección, Anacleto Canabal 1ra. Sección, Anacleto Canabal 2da. Sección, Anacleto Canabal 3ra. Sección, Aniceto, Aztlán 3ra. Sección (Corcho y Chilapilla), Aztlán 4ta. Sección, Aztlán 4ta. Sección (Corcho y Chilapilla), Barrancas y Amate 2da. Sección, Boca Grande el Espino, Boquerón 1ra. Sección (San Pedro), Boquerón 2da. Sección (El Barquillo), Boquerón 3ra. Sección (El Guanal), Buena Vista 2da. Sección (Colonia José María), Buena Vista 2da. Sección (Colonia Nueva Esperanza), Buena Vista 2da. Sección (El Tular), Buena Vista 3ra. Sección (Boca de Escoba), Buena Vista Río Nuevo 1ra. Sección, Buena Vista Río Nuevo 2da. Sección, Buenavista 1ra. Sección, Corregidora Ortiz 1ra. Sección, Dos Montes, El Alambrado, El Corozal, El Espino, El Manguito, Emiliano Zapata, Estancia, Flores del Trópico, Fraccionamiento Ocuiltzapotlán Dos, González 1ra. Sección, González 2da. Sección, Guineo 1ra. Sección, Guineo 2da. Sección, Ismate y Chilapilla 1ra. Sección (San Antonio), Ixtacomitán 1ra. Sección, Ixtacomitán 2da. Sección, Jolochero (Boca de la Culebra), Jolochero 2da. Sección, José Asmitia 3ra. Ampliación, José López Portillo, La Arena, La Ceiba, La Cruz del Bajío, La Loma, La Manga, La Manga 2da. Sección (El Jobal), La Mano, La Providencia (La Majahua), La Vuelta, Lagartera 1ra. Sección, Lagartera 1ra. Sección (Constitución), Lagartera 2da. Sección, Luis Gil Pérez, Macultepec, Medellín y Madero 1ra. Sección (Francisco I. Madero), Medellín y Madero 2da. Sección, Medellín y Madero 3ra. Sección, Medellín y Madero 4ta. Sección, Medellín y Pigua 2da. Sección, Medellín y Pigua 3ra. Sección, Medellín y Pigua 4ta. Sección (El Aguacate), Miraflores 2da. Sección, Miraflores 3ra. Sección, Miramar 3ra. Sección, Ocuiltzapotlán, Pajonal, Parrilla 1ra. Sección, Parrilla II, Paso Real de la Victoria, Plátano y Cacao 2da. Sección (La Isla), Playas del Rosario (Subteniente García), Plutarco Elías Calles (Cura Hueso), Río Tinto 1ra. Sección, Río Viejo 1ra. Sección, Rovirosa, Tamulte de las Sabanas, and Villahermosa), Jalpa de Méndez (Amatitán, Ayapa, Chacalapa 1ra. Sección, El Carmen (La Ensenada), El Novillero, El Púlpito, El Río, El Río (Santana), Iquinuapa, Iquinuapa (El Clavo), Jalpa de Méndez, Jalupa, Mecoacán 1ra. Sección, Nabor Cornelio Álvarez, Nicolás Bravo, Reforma 1ra. Sección, Ribera Alta, Salvador Allende, San Gregorio, Santuario 1ra. Sección, Santuario 2da. Sección José Narciso Rovirosa, Soyataco, Tierra Adentro 1ra. Sección, and Tomás Garrido Canabal (San José)), Macuspana (settlements of Abasolo 2da. Sección, Adolfo López Mateos (Corral Nuevo), Aguacatlán, Alcalde Mayor, Andrés García, Aquiles Serdán (San Fernando), Arroyo Hondo (Vicente Guerrero 2da. Sección), Bayona, Belén, Belén Monte Largo 3ra. Sección (Tronchadero), Benito Juárez, Benito Juárez (San Carlos), Benito Juárez Sección Panzillal, Bonanza 1ra. Sección, Buena Vista (Apasco), Cañahuatalillo, Carmen Serdán, Corralillo 1ra. Sección (Nopalapa), Corralillo 2da. Sección (La Princesa), Chiquihuite, El Bayo 1ra. Sección (Granada), El Bayo 2da. Sección, El Congo, El Corchal, El Chinal, El Chinalito, El Mango, El Progreso (La Candelaria), El Regocijo, El Reventón, El Triunfo 1ra. Sección, El Triunfo 2da. Sección, Emiliano Zapata 1ra. Sección, Emiliano Zapata 2da. Sección, Francisco Bates, García, Gregorio Méndez 1ra. Sección, Ignacio Manuel Altamirano 1ra. Sección, Ignacio Zaragoza (Los Ateos), José Colomo, José María Pino Suárez, La Ceiba, La Curva, La Escalera, La Isla 1ra. Sección, La Isla 2da. Sección, La Unión, La Y Griega, Las Ferias, Limbano Blandín 1ra. Sección, Limón 1ra. Sección Sector A, Limón 1ra. Sección Sector B, Limón 1ra. Sección Sector C, Limón 2da. Sección Sector A, Limón 2da. Sección Sector B, Linda Vista, Los Arbolitos, Los Pajareros, Maculizal, Macuspana, Mariano Matamoros, Miguel Hidalgo 1ra. Sección, Monte Grande, Monte Largo 1ra. Sección, Monte Largo 2ra Sección José López Portillo, Nabor Cornelio, Nueva División del Bayo (Guatemala), Nueva Esperanza, Pemex (Ciudad Pemex), Profresor Caparroso 2da. Sección, Ramón Grande, San Antonio, San Francisco, San Juan Bautista, Santa Lucía, Simón Sarlat, Simón Sarlat 2da. Sección (San Martín), Tepetitán, Tomás Garrido Caníbal, Trinidad Malpica Hernández, Triunfo 3ra. Sección, Veinte de Noviembre, Venustiano Carranza (La Alianza), Vernet 2da. Sección, Vernet 3ra. Sección, Vernet 4ta. Sección (Juan Salas), Vernet Sierra de Guadalupe, and Xicoténcatl), and Nacajuca (settlements of Bandera (Guatacalca 2da. Sección), Belén, Bosque de Saloya, Brisas del Carrizal, Cantemoc 1ra. Sección, Cantemoc 2da. Sección, Congregación Arena, Congregación Chicozapote, Congregación Guatacalca, Congregación Guatacalca Arroyo, Corralillo 3ra. Sección, Corriente 1ra. Sección, Corriente 2da. Sección, Chicozapote, El Cedro, El Chiflón, El Cometa, El Hormiguero, El Pastal, El Sitio, El Tigre 1ra. Sección, El Zapote, Ferlles Nuevo Campestre, Fraccionamiento la Selva, Guano Solo, Guatacalca, Guatacalca (Guatacalca 1ra. Sección), Guaytalpa, Isla Guadalupe, Jiménez, La Cruz, La Cruz de Olcuatitán, La Loma, Libertad 2da. Sección, Lomitas, Mazateupa, Nacajuca, Olcuatitán, Oxiacaque, Ribera Alta, Saloya 1ra. Sección, Saloya 2da. Sección, Salvador Allende, Samarcanda, San Isidro 1ra. Sección, San Isidro 2da. Sección, San José Pajonal, San Simón, Sandial, Sector Puente San Cipriano, Tapotzingo, Taxco, Tecoluta 1ra. Sección, Tecoluta 2da. Sección, Tierra Amarilla 3ra. Sección, Tucta, and Vainilla).[1] In Nacajuca, they form a majority of the population. The terrain is highly varied — no single landform dominates — and it has many bodies of water. The land is traversed by seasonally-flooding rivers, and there are numerous lakes, lagoons, and wetlands. The climate is humid and tropical, and the fauna was typical of tropical regions until the environment was altered by human industrialization. The mangrove is the predominant form of vegetation.

History

The territory of the Yokot'an was the cradle of the Olmec civilization, which lived there from about 1400 BCE until about 400 BCE. The Maya civilization reached its height in about the year 300 of the Common Era. At this time, the Yokot'an were also at their cultural apex. They had already begun to decline by the time of the Spanish conquest of Yucatán, and are mentioned in the narratives of Bernal Díaz del Castillo and Hernán Cortés.

In 1518, Juan de Grijalva arrived in Yokot'an lands, and was greeted with hostility. The next year, Cortés's expedition reached Tabasco, and he met with Tabscoob and other chiefs, who supplied him the translator who later became known as Doña Marina or La Malinche. According to Díaz,

"Before we left, Cortés won the chiefs by his many kind words, telling them how our master, the Emperor, had many grand lords who gave him obedience and that they should also obey him ; that whatever they might need we would give them. All the chiefs thanked him very much and declared themselves vassals of our great emperor, the first in New Spain to give obedience to His Majesty.

In 1614, the first church was built in Nacajuca, then considered the center of the Yokot'an world. Nacajuca was the only urban center to survive the colonial period, partly due to the introduction of animal husbandry, which limited the range of cultivation.

Economy

The traditional economy is based on agriculture, fishing, the raising of livestock, and the hunting of small game. Another source of income is palm-wood artisanry. In the past, the manufacture of oyster-shell lime for mortar was an important economic activity, but the availability of mass-produced building materials has reduced demand to the point where its production is no longer profitable.

Agriculture

The agriculture of the Yokot'an has been studied extensively and has been shown to be related to ancient Maya agrarian methods. They cultivate high-altitude lands that are enriched with mineral-rich loam by flooding. The principal crop is maize. Agriculture has been in decline since the Spanish conquest of Mexico, when animal husbandry was introduced. Maize, beans, and squash are planted seasonally.

Fishing

While fishing may have been as an important part of the Yokot'an economy as agriculture in Pre-Columbian times, today, due to environmental degradation, it doesn't have the same importance. The people continue, however, to fish, especially during periods of abundance. There are three main groups of fishermen. The "libre" ("free") fishermen use very simple "hoop and basket" technology and work in small groups led by an elected "boss". Members of official cooperatives enjoy the benefits of official organization, but are often underpaid. The third group consists of well-equipped business owners who work with contractors.

Livestock

The raising of livestock, unlike fishing, is a growing sector of the economy, often at the expense of agriculture. Many shallow lagoons formerly used for fishing have been drained for use as pastureland.

Hunting

The Yoko'tan hunt game such as the White-tailed deer, but small game has much more importance.

Crafts

Hats are woven from palm and sleeping mats called petates are woven from the fibers of cañita, the Cyperus giganteus, but the primary craft of the Yoko'tan people is the dugout canoe and its smaller counterpart, the cayuco, which is used for fishing and to reach the many islands used for planting.

Culture

Housing

Traditional houses are rectangular in shape, made of palm, wood and are supported by six to eight posts. The roofs are steep to minimize the effect of the heavy rains, and are built by hired professionals. Houses tend to be surrounded by overhangs for outdoor work. Kitchen work is generally done in under one of these awnings. One modern element of house construction that has been incorporated is the use of nails.

Family

The Yoko'tan family is nuclear, monogamous, and cohesive. There is a tendency to marry young, and gender roles are specifically defined. Nonetheless, women are accorded more respect in traditional villages than in villages with high mestizo populations.

Religion

The original mythology and cosmogony of the Yokot'an is only beginning to be studied. Their myths are filled with supernatural water- and mangrove-creatures, and the story of La Llorona is also told.

Public religious displays center around feast days, which points to the importance of syncretism in the adoption of the Catholic faith. As the traditional religion was inextricably entwined with the economy and culture, the "Christianization" of seasonal celebrations became an effective way of imposing the Spanish faith and culture. The most important feasts are of Our Lady of Mount Carmel, the former patroness of fishermen associated with Ix Bolom, the goddess of the sea, (July 16), the Immaculate Conception (December 8), and the Archangel Michael (September 29). April 29 is celebrated for the flood season.

During the 1980s, the Catholic Church sought to decrease the influence of Protestant missionaries, who had established themselves in the region as stalwarts against alcoholism and la costumbre, or traditional Maya religious practices.

In response, the Catholic Church formed groups of neighborhood catechists to take a hardline stance. They gave Catholic studies of the Gospel, discouraged the making of ofrendas (dedications to saints upon the building or purchase of a new house). They even discouraged music and dance.

This strong Catholic stance against la costumbre prompted a general withdrawal of the people from service to the Church and the decentralization of feast day celebration. Now the feasts are celebrated privately, among the family.

Language

Most Yoko'tan are bilingual. Yoko ochoco was in danger of dying out, but flourished in the 1980s after official preservation efforts.

Environmental

Environmental decline began with the draining of shallow lakes for pastureland when the raising of livestock was introduced. Land formerly used for cultivation was also used for grazing. More recently, Pemex has extensively polluted the waters of northern Tabasco and caused other ecologically-threatening changes such as altering the water's salinity. Some species have been driven to extinction and others have abandoned the affected habitats, reducing the average catch. The mangrove has receded and has thus been able to provide fewer forest resources. These actions have spurred local peoples movements against Pemex and their contractors.

Social and economic

The environmental degradation has driven many Yokot'an, especially men, to urban centers for employment. As a result, family cohesion has suffered and traditions, especially those pertaining to the traditional economy, are not as well preserved. There is also a major alcoholism problem caused by difficulty adapting to mainstream Mexican society and the comparative wealth experienced by recent arrivals to the cities.

References
  1. https://www.inali.gob.mx/clin-inali/html/v_chontal_de_tabasco.html

Sources
  • (in Spanish) Incháustegui, Carlos. Chontales de Centla: el impacto del proceso de modernización. Villahermoso, Tabasco: Instituto de Cultura de Tabasco, 1985. ISBN 968-889-001-4
  • (in Spanish) Incháustegui, Carlos. "Chontales de Tabasco / Yokot'anob o Yokot'an", part of the Instituto Nacional Indigenista's Pueblos Indígenas de México monograph series
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