Đại Việt

Đại Việt (大越, IPA: [ɗâjˀ vìət]; literally Great Việt), often known as Annam, was a Vietnamese kingdom in eastern Mainland Southeast Asia from the 10th century AD to the early 19th century, centred around the region of present-day Hanoi. Its early name, Đại Cồ Việt (Hán tự: 大瞿越), was established in 968 by Vietnamese ruler Đinh Bộ Lĩnh after he ended the Anarchy of the 12 Warlords, until the beginning of the reign of Lý Thánh Tông (r. 1054–1072), the third emperor of the Lý dynasty. Đại Việt lasted until the reign of Gia Long (r. 1802–1820), the first emperor of the Nguyễn dynasty, when the name was changed to Việt Nam.[8][9]

For the political party, see Nationalist Party of Greater Vietnam. For the Chinese kingdom initially called Great Yue/Việt, see Southern Han.
Đại Cồ Việt (968–1054)
Đại Việt (1054–1804)
Đại Cồ Việt Quốc (大瞿越國)
Đại Việt Quốc (大越國)
968–1400
1428–1804
Đại Việt (green) in the 1760s
Territorial evolution of Đại Việt from the 11th century to the 19th century
CapitalHoa Lư (968–1010)
Thăng Long (1010–1398, 1428–1789)
Phú Xuân (1789–1804)
Official languagesVietnamese
Classical Chinese (court language since 1174)[1]
Religion
Buddhism (State religion from 968 to 1400)
Taoism
Vietnamese folk religion
Catholicism
Islam
Hinduism
GovernmentAbsolute monarchy
(968-1533, 1788-1804)
Monarchy and military dictatorship
(1533-1788)
Emperor 
• 968–979
Đinh Bộ Lĩnh
• 1802–1804
Gia Long
Military dictators 
• 1533–1545 (first)
Nguyễn Kim
• 1545–1786
Trịnh lords
• 1786–1788 (last)
Nguyễn Huệ
Historical eraPostclassical era to Late modern period
905
• Established.[2]
968
• Lý Thánh Tông shortened his kingdom's name from Đại Cồ Việt to Đại Việt
1054
• Renamed Đại Ngu under Hồ Quý Ly
1400–1407
• Ming rule
1407–1427
• Emperor Gia Long changed Đại Việt to Việt Nam
1804
Population
• 1200
1,200,000[3]
• 1539
5,625,000[4]
• 1800
7,219,000[5]
CurrencyVietnamese văn, banknote
Preceded by		Succeeded by
Tĩnh Hải quân
Việt Nam under the Nguyễn dynasty
Today part of
Nước Đại Việt[6][7]
Vietnamese name
VietnameseNước Đại Việt
Hán-Nôm渃大越

Đại Việt's history is divided into the rule of eight royal dynasties of the Đinh (968–980), Early Lê (980–1009), Lý (1009–1226), Trần (1226–1400), Hồ (1400–1407), and Later Lê (1428–1789); the Mạc dynasty (1527–1677); and the brief Tây Sơn dynasty (1778–1802). It was briefly interrupted by the Hồ (1400–1407), which used the name Đại Ngu (大虞), and the Fourth Chinese domination of Vietnam (1407–1427) when the region was administered as Jiaozhi.[10]: 181  From the 13th to 18th century, Đại Việt's borders expanded to encompass territory that resemble modern-day Vietnam, which lies along the South China Sea from the Gulf of Tonkin to the Gulf of Thailand.

Early Đại Việt emerged in the 960s as a hereditary monarchy with Mahayana Buddhism was adopted as state religion, and lasted for 6 centuries. From the 16th century, Đại Việt gradually weakened and decentralized into multiple sub-kingdoms and domains, ruled by either the Lê, Mạc, Trịnh, Nguyễn families simultaneously. It was briefly unified by the Tây Sơn brothers in 1786, who divided among themselves in 1787. Finally, after the Trịnh-Nguyễn War with finally Nguyễn victory and destruction of the Tây Sơn, the whole Đại Việt was reunified, ended 300 years of fragmentation. Throughout its long existence from 968 to 1804, Đại Việt flourished and acquired significant power in the region. The kingdom slowly annexed Champa's and Cambodia's territories, expanded Vietnamese territories to the south and west. The kingdom is one of many important precursors of the country of Vietnam and the basis for its national historic and cultural identity.

Etymology
Further information: Names of Vietnam

The term "Việt" (Yue) (Chinese: 越; pinyin: Yuè; Cantonese Yale: Yuht; Wade–Giles: Yüeh4; Vietnamese: Việt) in Early Middle Chinese was first written using the logograph "戉" for an axe (a homophone), in oracle bone and bronze inscriptions of the late Shang dynasty (c. 1200 BC), and later as "越".[11] At that time it referred to a people or chieftain to the northwest of the Shang.[12] In the early 8th century BC, a tribe on the middle Yangtze were called the Yangyue, a term later used for peoples further south.[12] Between the 7th and 4th centuries BC Yue/Việt referred to the State of Yue in the lower Yangtze basin and its people.[11][12]

From the 3rd century BC the term was used for the non-Chinese populations of south and southwest China and northern Vietnam, with particular ethnic groups called Minyue, Ouyue, Luoyue (Vietnamese: Lạc Việt), etc., collectively called the Baiyue (Bách Việt, Chinese: 百越; pinyin: Bǎiyuè; Cantonese Yale: Baak Yuet; Vietnamese: Bách Việt; "Hundred Yue/Việt"; ).[11][12] The term Baiyue/Bách Việt first appeared in the book Lüshi Chunqiu compiled around 239 BC.[13] By the 17th and 18th centuries AD, educated Vietnamese apparently referred to themselves as người Việt (Việt people) or người nam (southern people).[14]

History

Origins
Main articles: Vietnam under Chinese rule, Jiaozhou (region), and Jiaozhi

For a thousand years, the area of what is now Northern Vietnam was ruled by a succession of Chinese dynasties as Giao Châu (交州, Jiaozhou) and Giao Chỉ (交趾, Jiaozhi).

James Chamberlain believes that the traditional Vietic realm was north central Vietnam/northern Laos and not the Red River Delta. Based on his interpretation of Keith Weller Taylor's examination of Chinese texts (Jiu Tangshu, Xin Tangshu, Suishu, Taiping Huanyu Ji, Tongdian), Chamberlain suggested that Việt-Mường peoples began emigrating from Central Vietnam (Jiuzhen, Rinan) to the Red River Delta in the seventh century, during the Tang dynasty,[15] possibly due to pressures from the Khmers in the south or the Chinese in the north. Chamberlain speculates that during the rebellion that was led by Mai Thúc Loan, son of a salt-producing family in Hoan province (today Hà Tĩnh Province, North-Central Vietnam), and lasted from 722 to 723, a large number of Sinicized lowland Vietic people or the Kinh moved north. The Jiu Tangshu[16][17] recorded that Mai Thúc Loan, also known as Mai Huyền Thành, styled himself as the Black Emperor (possibly after his swarthy complexion), and that he had 400,000 followers from 23 provinces across Annam and supporters from other kingdoms, including Champa and Chenla.[18] The theory about Vietnamese migration from mountainous Central Vietnam to the Red River Delta was first proposed by Vietnamese linguist Nguyễn Tài Cẩn in 1997 when he was researching on language of Vietic Chứt people in Central Vietnam, an ethnic minority group that speak a Vietic language related to the Vietnamese language.[19]

Even so, archaeogenetics demonstrated that before the Đông Sơn period, the Red River Delta's inhabitants were predominantly Austroasiatic: genetic data from Phùng Nguyên culture's Mán Bạc burial site (dated 1,800 BC) have close proximity to modern Austroasiatic speakers;[20][21] meanwhile, "mixed genetics" from Đông Sơn culture's Núi Nấp site showed affinity to "Dai from China, Tai-Kadai speakers from Thailand, and Austroasiatic speakers from Vietnam, including the Kinh";[22] therefore, "[t]he likely spread of Vietic was southward from the RRD, not northward. Accounting for southern diversity will require alternative explanations."[23] Michael Churchman stated that "the absence of records of large-scale population shifts indicates that there was a fairly stable group of people in Jiaozhi throughout the Han–Tang period who spoke Austroasiatic languages ancestral to modern Vietnamese".[24] On a Buddhist inscription dated 8th century from Thanh Mai village, Hà Nội, 100 out of 136 women mentioned in the epigraphy could be identified as ethnic Vietnamese females.[25] Linguist John Phan proposes that a local dialect of Middle Chinese called Annamese Middle Chinese developed and was spoken in the Red River Delta by descendants of Chinese immigrants, and later was absorbed into the co-existing Việt-Mường languages by the ninth century.[26] Phan himself identifies three layers of Chinese loanwords into Vietnamese: earliest layer of borrowing dates to the Han Dynasty (ca. 1st century CE) and Jin Dynasty (ca. 4th century CE) layers); the late layer of borrowing dates to the post-Tang period, and the recent layer of borrowing dates to the Ming & Qing dynasties.[27]

Founding
The Jinghai circuit (bottom) of the Khuc clan in 907

The hill dweller Mường who were intact of Chinese culture, allied with the Yunnanese state Nanzhao and rebelled against the Tang dynasty in the 860s. They captured Annan in three years, forcing the lowland Kinh scattered in asylums around the delta. The Tang Empire turned back and defeated the Nanzhao-Mường alliance in 866, but a military mutiny forced Tang authorities to withdraw in 880 while loyalist troops left for home on their own initiative.[28]

A regional regime of the Red River Delta was formed in the early 10th century led by the Sino-Viet Khuc family. From 907 to 917, Khúc Hạo and then Khúc Thừa Mỹ was appointed by Imperial China as jiedushi, tributary governors, as the Khúc did not try to create any kind of a de jure independent polity.[29] In 930, the neighboring Southern Han state invaded Annam and removed the Khúc from power. In 931, Dương Đình Nghệ, a local chief from Ái, revolted and quickly ousted the Southern Han.[30] In 937 he was assassinated by Kiều Công Tiễn, leader of the revanchist faction who allied with the Southern Han. In 938, emperor Liu Gong of Southern Han led an invasion fleet to Annam to assist Kiều Công Tiễn. Dương Đình Nghệ’s son-in-law Ngô Quyền, also was from the south, marched north and killed Kiều Công Tiễn. He then led the people to fight and destroyed the Southern Han fleet on the Bạch Đằng River.[31][32]

After defeating the Southern Han invasion, Ngô Quyền proclaimed himself as king and established a new dynasty in Cổ Loa citadel over the Principality. In 944, after his death, Ngô Quyền’s brother-in-law Dương Tam Kha (son of Dương Đình Nghệ) took power.[33] The Dương clan further pushed the segregation by bringing more southern men into the court. As a result, the principality broke apart during the reign of Tam Kha. Ngô Quyền’s sons Ngô Xương Văn and Ngô Xương Ngập deposed their maternal uncle and became dual kings in 950. In 954, Ngô Xương Ngập died. The younger Ngô Xương Văn ruled as the sole king, and nine years later he was killed by warlords.[34] Chaos unleashed across the Red River Delta.[35]

Early Đại Việt
Sculpture of Đinh Bộ Lĩnh in Hoa Lư temple (c. 17th cent).
A Thái Bình Hưng Bảo coin (~970s).

A new leader, the man of prowess named Đinh Bộ Lĩnh emerged. From Hoa Lư, he and his son Đinh Liễn spent two years of political and military struggle, managed to subdue all warlords and oppositions. Around 967 or 968, Đinh Bộ Lĩnh established the new kingdom of Đại Cồ Việt (大瞿越) (meaning "The Great Việt"[36][37]), and moved the court to Hoa Lư.[38] He (r. 968–979) became king of Đại Cồ Việt and titled himself as emperor, while Prince Đinh Liễn became the great prince. In 973 and 975, Đinh Bộ Lĩnh sent two embassies to Song dynasty of China and established relationships. Buddhist clergy were put in charge of important positions. Coins were minted. The territories of the early Việt state comprised the lowland Red River Basin to Nghệ An region.[39] According to an Hoa Lư inscription (c. 979), in that year Đinh Liễn murdered his brother Đinh Hạng Lang who was promoted as the crown prince by his father.[40] In late 979, both Đinh Bộ Lĩnh and Đinh Liễn were assassinated. Hearing the news, Ngô Nhật Khánh, a prince of the old royal family in exiled-and king Paramesvaravarman I of Champa launched a naval attack on Hoa Lư, but much of the fleet was capsized by a late-season typhoon.[41]

Queen Dương Vân Nga placed her partner, general Lê Hoàn, as the chief of the state. Lê Hoàn’s rivals then attacked him but were defeated. The queen of the Dương family then decided to replace the Đinh family with the Lê family of Lê Hoàn, and brought the crown from her six-year-old son Đinh Toàn (r. 979–980) to her mate Lê Hoàn (r. 980–1005) in 980.[42] Disturbances in Đại Cồ Việt attracted attention from the Song Empire. In 981, the Song Emperor launched an invasion of Đại Cồ Việt, but was repulsed by Lê Hoàn. In 982 he attacked Champa, killed the Cham king Paramesvaravarman I, and destroyed Cham capital Indrapura.[43] An Khmer inscription (c. 987) mentioned that in that year, some Vietnamese merchants or envoys arrived in Cambodia through the Mekong.[44]

After Lê Hoàn died in 1005, civil war broke out between his crown princes Lê Long Việt, Lê Long Đĩnh, Lê Long Tích, and Lê Long Kính. Lê Long Việt (r. 1005) was murdered by Lê Long Đĩnh while just had ruled for three days. As the Lê brothers fought each other, the Lý family-a member of the court’s cadet, led by Lý Công Uẩn, quickly rose to power. Lê Long Đĩnh (r. 1005–1009) ruled as a tyrant king and developed hemorrhoids. He died in November 1009. Lý Công Uẩn therefore, with support from the monks, ascended the throne two days later as Lý Thái Tổ.[45]

Flourish
Statue of Ly Cong Uan (974–1028) in Bac Ninh.

Emperor Lý Thái Tổ (r. 1009–1028) moved the court to the abandoned Chinese city of Đại La and renamed it to Thăng Long in 1010, which become present-day Hà Nội.[46] To control and maintain the nation’s wealth, in 1013 he created a taxation system per product.[47] His reign was relatively peaceful, though he campaigned against the Han communities in Hà Giang massif and subdued them in 1014.[48] He furthermore laid the basis of the stability Vietnamese state, his dynasty would rule the kingdom for the next 200 years.

Lý Thái Tổ’s son and grandson Lý Thái Tông (r. 1028–1053) and Lý Thánh Tông (r. 1054–1071) continued to strengthen the Viet state. Began during the reign of Lê Hoàn, the Việt expansion extended the Việt territories from the Red River Delta to every direction. The Vietnamese destroyed Cham northern capital Inprapura in 982, raided and plundered Southern Chinese port cities in 995, 1028, 1036, 1059, and 1060;[49] subdued the Nùng state in 1039; raided Laos in 1045; invaded Champa and pillaged Cham capital Vijaya in 1044 and 1069,[50] subjugated three northern Cham provinces of Địa Lý, Ma Linh, and Bố Chính.[51] Contact between the Song dynasty of China and the Việt state increased through raids and tributary mission, which resulted in Chinese cultural influences on Vietnamese culture,[52] the first civil examination based on Chinese model was staged in 1075, Chinese script was announced to be the officially writing script of the court in 1174,[1] and the emergence of Vietnamese demotic script (Chữ Nôm) in the 12th century.[53]

In 1054 Emperor Lý Thánh Tông changed his kingdom name to Đại Việt and declared himself an emperor.[54] He married an ordinary girl named Lady Ỷ Lan and she gave birth to him the crown prince Lý Càn Đức. In 1072 the infant Lý Càn Đức became Emperor Lý Nhân Tông (r. 1072–1127), the longest-ruling monarch in Vietnamese history. During the early years of Lý Nhân Tông, his father’s military leader Lý Thường Kiệt, uncle Lý Đạo Thành, and Queen Ỷ Lan became court regents.[55] From the 1070s, border tensions between the Song Empire, local Tai principalities, and the Việt kingdom arose into open violence. In winter 1075, Lý Thường Kiệt led a naval invasion of southern China. Việt troops wreaked havoc on Chinese border towns, then laid siege of Nanning and captured it one month later. The Song emperor sent a large counter-invasion of Đại Việt in late 1076, but Lý Thường Kiệt was able to fend off and defeat the Song advance at the Battle of the Cầu River, where half of Song forces perished in combats and diseases.[56] Lý Nhân Tông then offered peace with the Song, and later all hostilities were ended in 1084; the Song recognized the Việt polity as a sovereign kingdom.[57] According to a fourteenth-century chronicle, the Đại Việt sử lược, the Khmer Empire sent three embassies to Đại Việt in 1086, 1088 and 1095.[58] The matured Lý Nhân Tông came to rule in 1085. He defeated the Cham ruler Jaya Indravarman II in 1103,[59] built the Dạm pagoda in Bắc Ninh in 1086,[60] and constructed a Buddhist temple for his mother called Long Đọi pagoda in 1121.[61][62] He died in 1127. One of his nephews, Lý Dương Hoán, succeeded him and became known as Emperor Lý Thần Tông (r. 1128–1138). This marked the downfall of Lý family’s authority within the court.[63]

The inscription of Dạm Pagoda (built by king Lý Nhân Tông around c. early 12th cent).
Luqīn (Annam/Đại Việt) and Sanf (Champa) are shown in the bottom right of the Tabula Rogeriana, drawn by al-Idrisi for Roger II of Sicily in 1154.

Lý Thần Tông was crowned under the supervision of Lê Bá Ngọc, a powerful eunuch. Lê Bá Ngọc then adopted a son of the Emperor’s mother named Đỗ Anh Vũ. During the reign of Lý Thần Tông, Suryavarman II of the Khmer Empire launched an attack on Đại Việt’s southern territories in 1128. In 1132 he allied with Cham king Jaya Indravarman III and briefly seized Nghệ An, pillaged Thanh Hoá. In 1135 Duke Đỗ Anh Vũ raised an army and repelled the Khmer invaders. After the Chams refused to support in 1137, Suryavarman II abandoned his incursions on Đại Việt and launched the invasion of Champa.[64] At the same time, Lý Thần Tông began suffering fatal illness, according to an inscription, and he died in the next year, left the infant Lý Thiên Tộ who became Emperor Lý Anh Tông (r. 1138–1175) under Đỗ Anh Vũ’s patron.[65] After Đõ Anh Vũ died in 1159, another powerful figure named Tô Hiến Thành stepped into the role of guarding the dynasty until 1179.[66] In 1149, Javanese and Siamese ships arrived Vân Đồn to trade.[67] The sixth son of Lý Anh Tông, Prince Lý Long Trát was crowned in 1175 as Lý Cao Tông (r. 1175–1210).[68]

By the 1190s, more outsider clans were able to penetrate and infiltrate the royal family, weakening further the Lý authority. Three powerful aristocratic families–Đoàn, Nguyễn, and Trần (descendants of Trần Emperors, a Chinese emigre from Fujian) emerged in the court and contested on behalf of the royals. In 1210, Lý Cao Tông’s eldest son Lý Sảm became Emperor Lý Huệ Tông (r. 1210–1224) of Đại Việt. In 1224, Lý Sảm appointed his second princess Lý Phật Kim (Empress Lý Chiêu Hoàng) as successor while he abdicated and became a monk. Finally, in 1225 the Trần leader Trần Thủ Độ sponsored a marriage between his eight-year-old nephew Trần Cảnh with Lý Chiêu Hoàng, that means the Ly would give up power to the Trần, and Trần Cảnh became Emperor Trần Thái Tông of the new dynasty of Đại Việt.[69]

The young Trần Thái Tông centralized the monarchy, organized the civil examination on the Chinese model, built Royal Academy and Confucian Temple, constructed and repaired the delta dikes during his reign.[70] In 1257, the Mongol Empire under Möngke Khan who was waging a war to conquer the Song Empire, sent envoys to Trần Thái Tông, demanded the Emperor of Đại Việt to present himself to the Mongol Khan in Peking. The envoys were imprisoned and the demand was rejected, about 25,000 Mongol–Dali troops led by general Uriyangqadaï to invade Đại Việt from Yunnan, and then to attack the Song from Đại Việt. Unprepared, Trần Thái Tông’s army was overwhelmed at battle of Bình Lệ Nguyên on 17 January 1258. Five days later they captured and sacked Thăng Long.[71] The Mongols retreated to Yunnan fourteen days later, as Trần Thái Tông had submitted and sent tribute to Möngke.[72]

Trần Thái Tông’s successors Trần Thánh Tông (r. 1258–1278) and Trần Nhân Tông (r. 1278–1293) continued to send tribute to the new Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. In 1283, Yuan emperor Kublai Khan launched the invasion of Champa. In early 1285 he commissioned prince Toghon to led the second invasion of Đại Việt to punish the Vietnamese Emperor Trần Nhân Tông for not helping the Yuan campaign in Champa and refusing to send tribute. Kublai also appointed Trần Ích Tắc, a Trần prince dissent as the puppet Emperor of Đại Việt.[73] Yuan forces though initially captured Thăng Long, however, were defeated by Cham–Vietnamese alliance in June.[74] In 1288 they decided to launch the third and also the largest invasion of Đại Việt but were repelled. Prince Trần Hưng Đạo ended the Mongol yokes through an decisive naval victory in the battle of Bạch Đằng River in April 1288.[75][76] Đại Việt continued to flourish under the reigns of Trẩn Nhân Tông and Trần Anh Tông (r. 1293–1314).[77]

Crisis of the Fourteenth century
Main article: Cham–Vietnamese War (1367–1390)

By the 14th century, Đại Việt kingdom began experiencing a long decline. The transitional decade (1326–36) from the end of the Medieval Warm Period to the Mini-ice age period affected the climate of the Red River Delta into extremes.[78] Weather phenomena such as drought, violent flooding, storms frequently occurred, weakened the irrigation system that damaged agriculture production, created famines, together with widespread non-bubonic plagues, impoverished the peasantry, unleashed robbery and chaos.[79] The population grew from 1.2 million in 1200 to perhaps 2.4 million in 1340.[80]

Trần Anh Tông seized northern Champa in 1307, intervening in Champa’s politics through the marriage of Cham king Jaya Simhavarman III with Trần Anh Tông’s sister Queen Paramecvariin. Trần Minh Tông (r. 1314–1329) went into conflict with Tai peoples in Laos and Sukhothai from the 1320s to 1330s.[81] During the reign of the weak king Trần Dụ Tông (r. 1341–1369), internal rebellions led by serfs and peasants from the 1340s and 1360s weakened the royal power.[82] In 1369, due to Trần Dụ Tông’s lack of an heir to success, Dương Nhật Lễ, a man from the Dương clan, seized power. A short bloody civil war led by the royal Tran family against the Dương clan broke out in 1369–1370 that created turmoil. The Trần reclaimed the crown, enthroned Trần Nghệ Tông (r. 1370–1372) while Dương Nhật Lễ was deposed and executed. Duong's queen mother went into exile in Champa and begged Cham king Po Binasuor to help her get revenge.

Took advantage, Champa Empire under Po Binasuor (Chế Bồng Nga) invaded Đại Việt and ransacked Thăng Long in 1371. Six years later, the Dai Viet army suffered a great defeat at Battle of Vijaya, and Trần Duệ Tông (r. 1373–1377) was killed. The Chams then continued to advance north, besieged, pillaged, and looted Thăng Long four times, from 1378 to 1383.[83] War with Champa ended in 1390 after the Cham king Che Bong Nga was killed during his northward offensive by Vietnamese forces led by prince Trần Khát Chân, who used firearms in battle.[84]

Ming conquest and occupation
Main articles: Ming invasion of Đại Ngu and Fourth Era of Northern Domination
Tây Đô citadel, built by Hồ Quý Ly, c. 1397.

Hồ Quý Ly (1336–1407)-the minister of the Trần court who has desperately fought off the Cham invasions, now became the most powerful figure in the kingdom. He conducted a series of reforms, including replacing copper coins with banknotes, despite the kingdom still recovering after the devastating war.[85] Time by time, he slowly eliminated the Trần dynasty and aristocracy.[86] In 1400 he deposed the last Trần Emperor and became ruler of Đại Việt.[87] Hồ Quý Ly became emperor, moved the capital to Tây Đô and briefly changed the kingdom’s name to Đại Ngu (Great Joy/Peace) (大虞).[88] In 1401 he stepped down and established his second son Hồ Hán Thương (r. 1401–1407) who had Trần blood as king.[87] In 1406, Emperor Yongle of the Ming dynasty, in the name of restoring the house of Trần, invaded Đại Ngu. The ill-prepared Vietnamese resistance of Hồ Quý Ly, who failed to get support from his people, especially from the Thăng Long literati,[89] was crumbled and defeated by a Chinese army of 215,000, armed with the newest technology at the time. Đại Ngu kingdom became the thirteenth province of the Ming empire.[90][91]

The short-lived Ming colonial rule had traumatic impacts on the kingdom and the Vietnamese. In pursuit of their mission civilisatrice (sinicization), the Ming built and opened Confucian schools and shines,[92] prohibited old Vietnamese traditions such as tattooing, sent several thousand Vietnamese scholars to China where they were re-educated in Neo-Confucian classics. Some of these literati would dramatically change the Vietnamese state under the new Lê dynasty when they returned in the 1430s and served the new court, triggering a seismic shift from Mahayana Buddhism to Confucianism. Remains of pre-1400s Hanoi, Buddhist sanctuary and temples, were systematically demolished and reduced to ruins or nothing.[93]

Revival
Main article: Lam Sơn uprising

Lê Lợi-son of a peasant from Thanh Hoá region, led an uprising against the Chinese occupation in spring 1418. He led a war of independence against Ming colonial rule that lasted for 9 years.[94] Assisted by Nguyễn Trãi–a prominent anti-Ming scholar–and other Thanh Hoá families–the Trịnh and the Nguyễn, his rebel forces managed to capture and defeat several major Ming strongholds and counterattacks, eventually drove the Chinese back to the north in 1427. In April 1428, Lê Lợi was proclaimed as Emperor of a new Đại Việt.[87] He established Hanoi as Đông Kinh or the eastern capital, while the dynasty’s estate Lam Son became Tây Kinh or the western capital.

Through his proclamation, Lê Lợi called upon educated men of ability to come forward to serve the new monarchy.[95] The old Buddhist aristocrats were stripped during the Ming occupation and gave rise to the new emerging literati class. For the first time, a centralized authority based on proper laws was instituted. Literary examination now became crucial for the Việt state, scholars like Nguyễn Trãi played a large role in the court.

Lê Lợi shifted his main affair focus to the Tai people and the Laotian Lan Xang kingdom in the west, due to their betrayal and becoming allies with the Ming during his rebellion in the 1420s. In 1431 and 1433, the Việt launched several campaigns on various Tai polities, subdued them, and incorporated the northwest region into Đại Việt.

Succession crisis
Blue-line white dish decorates elephant surrounded by clouds, 15th century. Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Kneeling royal scribe, 15th century. Asian Civilisations Museum.

Lê Lợi died in 1433. He chose the younger prince Lê Nguyên Long (Lê Thái Tông, r. 1433–1442) as heir instead of the eldest Lê Tư Tề. Later Lê Tư Tề was expelled from the royal family and degraded status to a commoner.[96] Lê Thái Tông was only ten years old when he was crowned in 1433. Lê Lợi’s former comrades now fought politically with each other to control the court. Lê Sát used his power as the young emperor's regent to purge opposition factions. When Lê Thái Tông found out about Le Sat’s abuses of power, he allied with Lê Sát’s rival, Trịnh Khả. In 1437, Lê Sát was arrested and given a death sentence.[97]

In 1439 Lê Thái Tông launched a campaign against rebelling Tai vassals in the west and Chinese settlers in Đại Việt. He ordered the Chinese to cut their hair short and wear clothes of the Kinh people.[98] One of his sisters raised in China was forced to commit suicide, being accused of endless conspiracies. Later he had four princes: The eldest son Lê Nghi Dân, the second Lê Khắc Xương, the third Lê Bang Cơ, and the youngest Lê Hạo. In 1442 the emperor died in suspicion after a visit to Nguyễn Trãi’s family. Nguyễn Trãi and his clan, relatives were innocently condemned to death.

One-year-old Lê Bang Cơ (Lê Nhân Tông, r. 1442–1459) assumed the throne a few days after his father’s death. The emperor was too young and most political power of the court fell Lê Lợi’s former comrades Trịnh Khả and Lê Thụ, who allied with the queen mother Nguyễn Thị Anh. During the dry season of 1445–1446, Trịnh Khả, Lê Thụ, and Trịnh Khắc Phục attacked Champa and took Vijaya, where the king of Champa Maha Vijaya (r. 1441–1446) was captured. Trịnh Khả installed Maha Kali (r. 1446–1449) as a puppet king, however, three years later Kali’s elder brother murdered him and became king. Relations between the two kingdoms downfall into hostility.[99] In 1451, amidst chaotic political struggles, Queen Nguyễn Thị Anh ordered Trịnh Khả to be executed for an accusation of conspiracy against the royal throne. Only two of Lê Lợi’s former comrades, Nguyễn Xí and Đinh Liệt were still alive.[100]

During a night in late 1459, Prince Lê Nghi Dân and followers stormed into the palace, stabbed his half-brother and the mother. Four days later he was proclaimed as emperor. Nghi Dân ruled the kingdom for 8 months, then the two former-Nguyễn Xí and Đinh Liệt carried a coup against him. Two days after Nghi Dân's death, the youngest prince Lê Hạo was crowned, known as Emperor Lê Thánh Tông the Overflowing Virtue[101] (r. 1460–1479).[102]

Lê Thánh Tông’s reforms
Temple of Literature, Hanoi, served as royal school during 11th–18th century

In the 1460s, Lê Thánh Tông carried out a series of reforms, from centralizing government, built the first extensive bureaucracy and strong fiscal system, institutionalizing education, trade, and laws. He greatly reduced the power of the traditional Buddhist aristocracy with a scholar-literati class, ushered a brief golden age. Classical scholarly, literature (in nom script), science, music, and culture flourished. Hanoi emerged as the centre of learning of Southeast Asia in the 15th century. Lê Thánh Tông’s reforms helped heightened the power of the king and the bureaucratic system, allowing him to mobilize a more massive army and resources that overawed the local nobility and capable to expand the Việt territories.[103]

To expand the kingdom, Lê Thánh Tông launched an invasion of Champa in early 1471 that brought destruction to the Cham civilization and made the rump state Panduranga a vassal of Đại Việt. Respond to disputes with Laos over Muang Phuan and the mistreatment of the Laotian envoy, Lê Thánh Tông led a strong army that invaded Laos in 1479, sacked Luang Phabang, occupied it for five years, and advanced far away as Upper Burma.[104][105] On the sea, Vietnamese navy clashed with the Malacca Sultanate and Ryukyu Kingdom along the maritime trade route.[106] Vietnamese products, particularly porcelains, were sold throughout Southeast Asia, China, and also in modern-day East African coast, Japan, Iran and Turkey.[107]

Decline and disintegration
1653 French map represents political divisions of the Đại Việt kingdom during 17th century: northern part (Tonkin) was ruled by the Trịnh family, while southern part (Cochinchina) was being under Nguyễn Phúc family.
Painting depicts the funeral of lord Trịnh Tùng, who ruled northern Đại Việt from 1572 to 1623 as military dictator.

In the next few decades after Lê Thánh Tông’s death in 1497, Đại Việt shrank down again. Agriculture failures, fast population growth, corruption, and factionalism shed the kingdom, made it rapidly declined. Eight weak Lê Emperors briefly hold power. During the reign Lê Uy Mục–the "devil king" (r. 1505–1509), bloody fighting ignited between the two rival Thanh Hoá family in the cadet, the Trịnh and the Nguyễn on behalf of the royal family.[108] Emperor Lê Tương Dực (r. 1509–1514) tried to restore the stability, but chaotic political struggles and rebellions returned years later. In 1516 a Buddhist-peasant rebellion led by Trần Cảo stormed the capital, killed the emperor, plundered, and destroyed the royal palace along with its library.[109] The Trịnh and Nguyễn clans briefly ceased hostility for a short time, suppressed Trần Cảo, and installed a young prince as Emperor Lê Chiêu Tông (r. 1517–1522), then they quickly turned against each other and forced the emperor to flee.[110]

The chaos prompted Mạc Đăng Dung, a military officer and well-educated in Confucian classics, to quell up and restore the order. By 1522, he effectively put down the two warring clans and rebellions while establishing his clan and supporters to the government. In 1527 he enforced the young Lê Emperor to abdicate and proclaime himself emperor and began the Mạc dynasty rule.[111] Six years later, Nguyễn Kim–a Nguyễn noble and Lê loyalist-rebelled against the Mạc, enthroned Lê Duy Ninh–a descendant of Lê Lợi and reset up the monarchy-in-exile in Laos. In 1542 they reemerged from the south, known as the southern court, laid claim of the Vietnamese crown, and opposed the Mạc (the northern court). The Việt kingdom now fell into a long period of depressions, decentralization, chaos, and civil wars that lasted for three centuries.[112]

The Lê (assisted by Nguyễn Kim) and the Mạc loyalists fought on behalf of reclaiming the legitimate Vietnamese crown. When Nguyễn Kim died in 1545, the power of the Lê family swiftly falls into the dictate of the lord Trịnh Kiểm of the Trịnh family. One of Nguyễn Kim’s sons, Nguyễn Hoàng, was appointed as ruler of the southern part of the kingdom, thus began the Nguyễn family rule over Cochinchina.[113]

The Lê-Trịnh loyalists ousted the Mạc from Hanoi in 1592, forced the Mạc to flee into the mountainous hinterland, where their reign extended until 1677.[114]

The Trịnh-controlled northern Đại Việt was known as Đàng Ngoài (Outer Realm), while the Nguyễn-controlled south became Đàng Trong (Inner Realm). They fought a fifty-year civil war (1627–1673), which ended inclusively and two lords signed a peace treaty. This stability disunification would last to 1771 when three Tây Sơn brothers Nguyễn Nhạc, Nguyễn Huệ and Nguyễn Lữ led a peasant revolution that would overrun and topple the Nguyễn, the Trịnh lords, and the Le dynasty. In 1789, the Tây Sơn defeated a Ching intervention that sought to restore the House of Lê. Nguyễn Nhạc established a monarchy in 1778 (Emperor Thái Đức), followed by his brother Nguyễn Huệ (Emperor Quang Trung, r. 1789–1792) and nephew Nguyễn Quang Toản (Emperor Cảnh Thịnh, r. 1792–1802), while a descendant of the Nguyễn lords, Nguyễn Ánh returned to the Mekong Delta, after several years exiled in Thailand and France. Ten years later Nguyễn loyalists defeated the Tây Sơn and conquered the whole kingdom. Nguyễn Anh became the emperor of the new unified Vietnamese state.

Political structure

Pre-1200s

In the early Đại Việt period (pre-1200), the Việt monarchy existed as a form of what historians describe as a "charter state"[115] or a "mandala state."[116][117][118] The study of the early Việt state has been questioned and debated, because the precise materials and sources of the period mainly come from surviving inscriptions and texts. In 1973, Minoru Katakura used the term "centralized feudal system" to describe the Lý dynasty’s Việt state. Yumio Sakurai reconstructed the Lý dynasty as a local dynasty that the king controlled several inner areas, while outer areas (phu) were autonomously governed by local clans who were vassals to the royal family through Buddhist alliances, such as temples.[119] As the Việt rise from tribal society into a state, the Việt emperors "man of prowess" was the centre of the mandala structure, while a bureaucracy was still nonexistent. For examples, an inscription dated 1107 in Hà Giang records the religious-political connection between the ethnic Nùng Hà clan with the royal family, or another inscription dated 1100 commemorates Lý Thường Kiệt as the lord of Thanh Hoá.[120] As a mandala realm, according to F. K. Lehman, its direct territories could not exceed more than 150 miles in diameter, however, the Đại Việt kingdom was able to maintain a large influence sphere due to active coastal trade and maritime activities with other Southeast Asian states.[121]

The royal court of early Đại Việt was Buddhist. Women persisted strongly in politics. The court often relied on a group of Chinese merchants for a while in classic and state affairs. For example, Emperor Lê Đại Hành appointed a Chinese name Hongjian as a political advisor and diplomat.[43] Later in 1076 Emperor Lý Nhân Tông opened Vietnam’s first civil service examination to train Vietnamese scholars in Chinese classics, and in 1195 examination, the Three Doctrines (Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism/shamanism) knowledge were put in the test.[122] Serving the king were a chancellor (thái uý), few scholars who experts in Chinese classics, nobles, and the more important Buddhist clerics. Princes were bilinguals, and they could speak both Chinese and Old Vietnamese.[123]

Trần-Hồ period

During the 13th and 14th century as the Trần dynasty ruled the kingdom, the Trần first move was preventing matrilineality clans to take over the royal family, by adopting the emperor-retire emperor relation, which the emperor usually abdicated in favor of his eldest son while retaining power behind the scenes, and practicing consanguine marriage. To prevent maternal families’ influences, Trần Emperors took only queens from their family line. The state had been more centralized, taxes and bureaucracy appeared, chronicles were written down. Most power is concentrated in the hands of the emperor and the royal families. In the lowland, the Trần removed all non-Trần, autonomous aristocratic clans from the power, appointed Trần princes to rule these lands, tightened up relations between the state and locals. Working in Trần princely lands were serfs-poor peasants that own no land and slaves. Large hydraulic projects that mobilized more labours such as Red River Delta’s dyke system were constructed-one that maintained and increased its particularly wet-rice-based agricultural economy and its population by diverting rivers to aid in irrigation.[124] Confucianism was ensured by the Trần monarchs as the second belief, gave rise to the literati class, which later became rivals to the established Buddhist clergies.

The Việt monarchy during this period faced a series of massive Yuan and Cham invasions, political unrests, famines, disasters, and diseases, and was led to a nearly collapse in the late 1300s. Hồ Quý Ly as the minister had tried to fix the troubles by eliminating the Trần aristocrats, limiting monks, and promote Chinese classic learning, however, resulted in political catastrophe.[125]

Early modern period
Painting depicts emperor Lê Hy Tông (r. 1675–1705) giving an audience, c. 1685.
Steles inscribe names of graduated scholars in Quốc Tử Giám of Hanoi

From Lê Thánh Tông’s 1463 reforms onward, the Vietnamese state’s structure was modeled after the Ming dynasty of China. He established six Ministries and six Courts. The government had been centralized. By 1471, Đại Việt was divided into 12 provinces and one capital city (Thăng Long), each governed by a provincial government consisted of military commanders, civil administrators, and judicial officers.[126] Lê Thánh Tông employed 5,300 officials into the bureaucracy. A new legal code called the Lê Code was published in 1462 and was practiced until 1803.[127]

The social hierarchy of 15th century Đại Việt comprised:[128]

Non-royal nobility:

Both the leaders of the Trịnh and clans, who de facto ruled the two-polities kingdom from the 16th to the 18th century, used the title Chúa (lord), which is outside of the classical hierarchy of nobility.[129] After ousted the Mạc in 1592, the two Thanh Hoá clans divided the kingdom into two simultaneously coexist but rival militarist regimes: the northern Đàng Ngoài or Tonkin ruled by the Trịnh family while the southern Đàng Trong or Cochinchina ruled by the Nguyễn family; their natural border is the city of Đồng Hới (18th parallel north).[130] Each polity had its own independent government, however, they still sought to subordinate with the Royal House of Lê, which also remained under Trịnh supervision.[131]

Economy

Fan Chengda (1126–1193), a Chinese statesman and geographer, wrote an account in 1176 described the medieval Vietnamese economy:

...Local [Annamite] products include such things as gold and silver, bronze, cinnabar, pearls, cowry [shells], rhinoceros [horn], elephant, kingfisher feathers, giant clams, and various aromatics, as well as salt, lacquer, and kapok...[132]

...Travelers to the Southern Counties [Southern China] entice people there to serve [in Annam] as female slaves and male bearers. But when they reach the [Man] counties and settlements, they are tied up and sold off. One slave can fetch two taels of gold. The counties and settlements then turn around and sell them in Jiaozhi [Hanoi], where they fetch three taels of gold. Each year no fewer than 100,000 people [are sold off as slaves]. For those with skills, the price in gold doubles...[133]

Art and religion
Steeple of the Keo temple, timber, c. 1630.

Buddhism had penetrated to modern-day Vietnam around the first century AD, during the Han occupation.[134] By the 8th century, Mahayana Buddhism had become the dominant belief of the Vietnamese. The epigraphy of Thanh Mai inscription (c. 798) indicates that a Chinese-influenced Buddhist sect was widely practiced among the Red River dwellers during the Tang. Buddhist scriptures claim that in 580, an Indian monk named Vinītaruci arrived northern Vietnam and founded the Thiền patriarch (Vietnamese Zen Buddhism).[135] In 820, a Chinese monk named Wu Yantong arrived northern Vietnam and found the second Thiền sect,[136] which lasted to the 13th century. In 1293, Emperor Trần Nhân Tông personally opened a new Thiền patriarch called Trúc Lâm,[137] which is still operating today.

Arhat sculptures of Tây Phương Temple, ca. 18th century.[138]
The Cathedrate of Phủ Cam in Huế

Vietnamese Buddhism gained an apex during the medieval period. The king, the court, and society were deeply Buddhist. According to Đinh Liễn's Ratnaketu Dhāraṇī inscriptions (c. 973), Mahayana Buddhism and some elements of Tantric Buddhism were promoted by the emperor and the royals, who devoutly Buddhists. Mahayana sutras were inscribed along with the Prince's speech on these pillars.[139] The inscription of Emperor Lê Đại Hành (c. 995) however mentioned Thiền Buddhism as the royal religion. By the early 11th century, Mahayana, Hinduism, folk beliefs, and spiritual worship was fused and formed into a new religion by Ly royals, who frequently performed Buddhist rituals, blood oaths, and prayed for spiritual deities, Buddha, Indra and Brahma.[140][141] The Lý dynasty religion later was absorbed into Vietnamese folk religion. The emperors built temples and statues delicate for Indra and Brahma in 1016, 1057, and 1134,[142] along with temples for Vietnamese legends. At the funeral, the emperor’s body was put on a pyre to be burned, according to Buddhist tradition. The main characteristics of Vietnamese Buddhists were largely influenced by Chinese Chan Buddhists.[143] A temple inscription dated from 1226 in Hanoi describes a Vietnamese Buddhist altar: "the Buddha statue was flanked by an Apsara, one of the Hindu water and cloud nymphs, and a Bodhisattva with a clenched fist. Before the altar stood statues of a Guardian of the Dharma flanked by Mỹ Âm, king of the Gandharvas, mythical musician husbands of the Apsaras, and Kauṇḍinya, the Buddha’s leading early disciple."[144] The Buddhist sangha sponsored by the royals, owned the majority of farmlands and the kingdom’s wealth. A stele erected in 1209 records that the royal family had donated 126 acres of land to a pagoda.[145] A Vietnamese Buddhist temple often consists of a temple built by timber, and pagoda/stupas made of bricks or granite rocks. Việt Buddhist art notably shares similarities with Cham art, especially at sculptures.[146] The dragon bodhi leaf sculpture symbolizes the emperor, while the phoenix bodhi leaf stands for the queen.[147] Buddhism shaped the society and the laws during the Ly dynasty Dai Viet. Princes and royals were raised in Buddhist monasteries and monkhood. A Buddhist Arhat Assembly was instituted to legislate monastic and temple affairs generated relatively tolerant laws.[148]

Vietnamese Buddhism declined in the 15th century due to the Ming Chinese Neo-Confucianism anti-Buddhist agenda and later Le monarchs downplaying of Buddhism, but was revived in the 16th–18th century when the royal family's efforts to restore Buddhism's role in society, which resulted in today Vietnam's majority Buddhist country.[149] In the south, thanked the effort of Chinese monk Shilian Dashan in 1694–1695, the whole Nguyễn family converted themselves from secularism to Buddhism. The Nguyễn also incorporated local Cham deities into Southern Vietnamese Buddhism.[150] The Đình–village temples–persisted from the 15th century are the centre of village administration and prohibited Buddhist-based cults and local deities.[151]

Catholicism was introduced by European missionaries to Đại Việt in the 16th and 17th centuries mostly thanked for the efforts of Portuguese and Italian Jesuits. Despite being prohibited from both north and south regimes, Catholicism spread rapidly especially in the Red River Delta, and the Vietnamese Catholic Church managed to maintain as a strong and independent force. By 1655, northern Đại Việt had over 250,000 Catholic Christians. Since the 1630s, Jesuit members, most importantly Alexandre de Rhodes, and Vietnamese Catholics had developed the modern Vietnamese alphabets that later became the official written script in Vietnam two hundred years later, in the 1870s.[152] The Jesuits heavily influenced Vietnamese politics, which resulted in the expulsion of the Jesuits by both Trịnh and Nguyễn lords in the 1660s.[153]

Maps

Timeline (dynasties)

Started in 968 and ended in 1804.

        Ming domination   Nam–Bắc triều * Bắc Hà–Nam Hà  French Indochina 
Chinese dominationNgô ĐinhEarly LêLýTrầnHồLater Trần LêMạcRevival LêTây SơnNguyễnModern time
                 
             Trịnh lords    
             Nguyễn lords    
939   100912251400  142715271592178818581945
History of Vietnam
(Names
of Vietnam)
2879–2524 BC Xích Quỷ
2524–258 BC Văn Lang
257–179 BC Âu Lạc
204–111 BC Nam Việt
111 BC – 40 AD Giao Chỉ
40–43 Lĩnh Nam
43–299 Giao Chỉ
299–544 Giao Châu
544–602 Vạn Xuân
602–679 Giao Châu
679–757 An Nam
757–766 Trấn Nam
766–866 An Nam
866–967 Tĩnh Hải quân
968–1054 Đại Cồ Việt
1054–1400 Đại Việt
1400–1407 Đại Ngu
1407–1427 Giao Chỉ
1428–1804 Đại Việt
1804–1839 Việt Nam
1839–1945 Đại Nam
1887–1954 Đông Dương
(Bắc/Trung/Nam Kỳ)
from 1945 Việt Nam
Main template
History of Vietnam

See also

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  105. Taylor (2013), p. 221.
  106. Kiernan (2019), p. 211–212.
  107. Beaujard (2019), p. 393, 512.
  108. Kiernan (2019), p. 213.
  109. Kiernan (2019), p. 214.
  110. Balzanda (2016), p. 87.
  111. Baldanza (2016), p. 89.
  112. Kiernan (2019), p. 217.
  113. Kiernan (2019), p. 218.
  114. Kiernan (2019), p. 225.
  115. Lieberman (2003), p. 35.
  116. Reid&Tran (2006), p. 10.
  117. Rush (2018), p. 35.
  118. Lockhart (2018), p. 198.
  119. Lieberman (2003), p. 355.
  120. Whitmore (2009), p. 8.
  121. Anderson (2014), p. 108.
  122. Lieberman (2003), p. 356–357.
  123. Taylor (2013), p. 120.
  124. Lieberman (2003), p. 358–360.
  125. Lieberman (2003), p. 373.
  126. Taylor (2013), p. 212–213.
  127. Kiernan (2019), p. 205.
  128. Taylor (2013), p. 213.
  129. Lieberman (2003), p. 400.
  130. Lieberman (2003), p. 397.
  131. Kiernan (2019), p. 241.
  132. Fan (2011), p. 202.
  133. Fan (2011), p. 203.
  134. Schweyer & Piemmettawat (2011), p. 221.
  135. Kiernan (2019), p. 107.
  136. Kiernan (2019), p. 151.
  137. Kiernan (2019), p. 174.
  138. Schweyer & Piemmettawat (2011), p. 331.
  139. Schweyer & Piemmettawat (2011), p. 361.
  140. Kiernan (2019), p. 157.
  141. Whitmore (2009), p. 7-8.
  142. Schweyer & Piemmettawat (2011), p. 229.
  143. Lieberman (2003), p. 357.
  144. Kiernan (2019), p. 165.
  145. Miksic & Yian (2016), p. 431.
  146. Miksic & Yian (2016), p. 433.
  147. Miksic & Yian (2016), p. 432.
  148. Taylor (2013), p. 69.
  149. Taylor (2013), p. 289–290.
  150. Kiernan (2019), p. 242.
  151. Taylor (2013), p. 242.
  152. Kiernan (2019), p. 234.
  153. Taylor (2013), p. 287–289.
  154. Miksic & Yian (2016), p. 491.
  155. Schweyer & Piemmettawat (2011), p. 261.
  156. Schweyer & Piemmettawat (2011), p. 323.
  157. Schweyer & Piemmettawat (2011), p. 272.
  158. Schweyer & Piemmettawat (2011), p. 308.

Sources
  • Andaya, Barbara Watson; Andaya, Leonard Y. (2015). A History of Early Modern Southeast Asia, 1400–1830. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-88992-6.
  • Baldanza, Kathlene (2016). Ming China and Vietnam: Negotiating Borders in Early Modern Asia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781316531310.
  • Baron, Samuel; Borri, Christoforo; Dror, Olga; Duiker, Keith W. (2018). Views of Seventeenth-Century Vietnam: Christoforo Borri on Cochinchina and Samuel Baron on Tonkin. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-1-501-72090-1.
  • Beaujard, Philippe (2019), The Worlds of the Indian Ocean: Volume 2 From the Seventh Century to the Fifteenth Century CE, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-1-10864-477-8
  • Bielenstein, Hans (2005), Diplomacy and Trade in the Chinese World, 589-1276, Brill
  • Chamberlain, James R. (2000). "The origin of the Sek: implications for Tai and Vietnamese history" (PDF). In Burusphat, Somsonge (ed.). Proceedings of the International Conference on Tai Studies, July 29–31, 1998. Bangkok, Thailand: Institute of Language and Culture for Rural Development, Mahidol University. ISBN 974-85916-9-7. Retrieved 29 August 2014.
  • Coedes, George (2015). The Making of South East Asia (RLE Modern East and South East Asia). Taylor & Francis.
  • Chapuis, Oscar (1995). A history of Vietnam: from Hong Bang to Tu Duc. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0-313-29622-7.
  • Dror, Olga (2007), Cult, Culture, and Authority : Princess Lieu Hanh in Vietnamese History, University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 978-0-8248-2972-8
  • Dutton, George; Werner, Jayne; Whitmore, John K., eds. (2012). Sources of Vietnamese Tradition. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-51110-0.
  • Fan, Chengda (2011). Hargett, James M. (ed.). Treatises of the Supervisor and Guardian of the Cinnamon Sea: The Natural World and Material Culture of Twelfth-Century China. University of Washington Press. ISBN 0-29599-079-1.
  • Hall, Daniel George Edward (1981). History of South East Asia. Macmillan Education, Limited. ISBN 978-1-349-16521-6.
  • Hall, Kenneth R. (2019). Maritime Trade and State Development in Early Southeast Asia. University of Hawaii Press.
  • Hoang, Anh Tuấn (2007). Silk for Silver: Dutch-Vietnamese relations, 1637–1700. Brill. ISBN 978-9-04-742169-6.
  • Hubert, Jean-François; Noppe, Catherine (2018), Arts du Viêtnam: La fleur du pêcher et l'oiseau d'azur, Parkstone International, ISBN 978-1-78310-815-2
  • Kiernan, Ben (2019). Việt Nam: a history from earliest time to the present. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-190-05379-6.
  • Li, Tana (2018). Nguyen Cochinchina: Southern Vietnam in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-1-501-73257-7.
  • Li, Yu (2020). The Chinese Writing System in Asia: An Interdisciplinary Perspective. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-00-069906-7.
  • Lieberman, Victor (2003). Strange Parallels: Integration of the Mainland Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800-1830, Vol 1. Cambridge University Press.
  • Lockhart, Bruce M. (2018), In Search of “Empire” in Mainland Southeast Asia, pp. 195–214, Bloomsbury Publishing, ISBN 978-1-47259-123-4
  • Nguyen, Tai Can (1997). Giáo trình lịch sử ngữ âm tiếng Việt Sơ thảo. Nxb. Giáo dục.
  • Nguyen, Tai Thu (2008). The History of Buddhism in Vietnam. Council for Research in Values and Philosophy. ISBN 978-1-565-18097-0.
  • Miksic, John Norman; Yian, Go Geok (2016). Ancient Southeast Asia. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 1-317-27903-4.
  • Reid, Anthony; Tran, Nhung Tuyet (2006). Viet Nam: Borderless Histories. University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-1-316-44504-4.
  • Rush, James R. (2018), Southeast Asia: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19024-877-2
  • Schweyer, Anne-Valérie; Piemmettawat, Paisarn (2011), Viêt Nam histoire arts archéologie, Olizane, ISBN 978-2-88086-396-8
  • Tarling, Nicholas (1999). The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-66372-4.
  • Taylor, K. W. (2013). A History of the Vietnamese. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-24435-1.
  • Taylor, K. W. (2018). Whitmore, John K. (ed.). Essays Into Vietnamese Pasts. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-1-501-71899-1.
  • Whitmore, John K. (2009), Religion and Ritual in the Royal Courts of Dai Viet, Asia Research Institute

Further reading
  • Bridgman, Elijah Coleman (1840). Chronology of Tonkinese Kings. Harvard University. p. 205–212. ISBN 9781377644080.
  • Aymonier, Etienne (1893). The Imperial and Asiatic Quarterly Review and Oriental and Colonial Record. Oriental University Institute. ISBN 978-1149974148.
  • Cordier, Henri; Yule, Henry, eds. (1993). The Travels of Marco Polo: The Complete Yule-Cordier Edition : Including the Unabridged Third Edition (1903) of Henry Yule's Annotated Translation, as Revised by Henri Cordier, Together with Cordier's Later Volume of Notes and Addenda (1920). Courier Corporation. ISBN 9780486275871.
  • Harris, Peter (2008). The Travels of Marco Polo, the Venetian. Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0307269133.
  • Wade, Geoff. tr. (2005). Southeast Asia in the Ming Shi-lu: an open access resource. Singapore: Asia Research Institute and the Singapore E-Press, National University of Singapore.
  • Pires, Tomé; Rodrigues, Francisco (1990). The Suma oriental of Tome Pires, books 1–5. Asian Educational Services. ISBN 9788120605350.
  • Relazione de’ felici successi della santa fede predicata dai Padri della Compagnia di Giesu nel regno di Tunchino (Rome, 1650)
  • Tunchinesis historiae libri duo, quorum altero status temporalis hujus regni, altero mirabiles evangelicae predicationis progressus referuntur: Coepta per Patres Societatis Iesu, ab anno 1627, ad annum 1646 (Lyon, 1652)
    • Histoire du Royaume de Tunquin, et des grands progrès que la prédication de L’Évangile y a faits en la conversion des infidèles Depuis l’année 1627, jusques à l’année 1646 (Lyon, 1651), translated by Henri Albi
  • Divers voyages et missions du P. Alexandre de Rhodes en la Chine et autres royaumes de l'Orient (Paris, 1653), translated into English as Rhodes of Viet Nam: The Travels and Missions of Father Alexandre de Rhodes in China and Other Kingdoms of the Orient (1666)
  • La glorieuse mort d'André, Catéchiste (The Glorious Death of Andrew, Catechist) (pub. 1653)
  • Royal Geographical Society, The Journal of the Royal Geographical Society: Volume 7 (1837)

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